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In and , a hot cathode or thermionic cathode is a cathode electrode which is heated to make it emit due to thermionic emission. This is in contrast to a cold cathode, which does not have a heating element. The heating element is usually an electrical filament heated by a separate electric current passing through it. Hot cathodes typically achieve much higher power density than cold cathodes, emitting significantly more electrons from the same surface area. rely on field electron emission or secondary electron emission from positive ion bombardment, and do not require heating. There are two types of hot cathode. In a directly heated cathode, the filament is the cathode and emits the electrons. In an indirectly heated cathode, the filament or heater heats a separate metal cathode electrode which emits the electrons.
From the 1920s to the 1960s, a wide variety of electronic devices used hot-cathode vacuum tubes. Today, hot cathodes are used as the source of electrons in , , and the used in and laboratory equipment such as electron microscopes.
There are two types of hot cathodes:
The main reason for using an indirectly heated cathode is to isolate the rest of the vacuum tube from the electric potential across the filament, allowing vacuum tubes to use alternating current to heat the filament. In a tube in which the filament itself is the cathode, the alternating electric field from the filament surface would affect the movement of the electrons and introduce Mains hum into the tube output. It also allows the filaments in all the tubes in an electronic device to be tied together and supplied from the same current source, even though the cathodes they heat may be at different potentials.
To improve electron emission, cathodes are usually treated with chemicals, compounds of metals with a low work function. These form a metal layer on the surface which emits more electrons. Treated cathodes require less surface area, lower temperatures and less power to supply the same cathode current. The untreated thoriated tungsten filaments used in early vacuum tubes (called "bright emitters") had to be heated to , white-hot, to produce sufficient thermionic emission for use, while modern coated cathodes (called "dull emitters") produce far more electrons at a given temperature, so they only have to be heated to .
For manufacturing convenience, the oxide-coated cathodes are usually coated with , which are then converted to oxides by heating. The activation may be achieved by microwave heating, direct electric current heating, or electron bombardment while the tube is on the exhausting machine, until the production of gases ceases. The purity of cathode materials is crucial for tube lifetime. The Ba content significantly increases on the surface layers of oxide cathodes down to several tens of nanometers in depth, after the cathode activation process. The lifetime of oxide cathodes can be evaluated with a stretched exponential function. The survivability of electron emission sources is significantly improved by high doping of high‐speed activator.
Barium oxide reacts with traces of silicon in the underlying metal, forming a barium silicate (Ba2SiO4) layer. This layer has high electrical resistance, especially under discontinuous current load, and acts as a resistor in series with the cathode. This is particularly undesirable for tubes used in computer applications, where they can stay without conducting current for extended periods of time.Electron Tube Design, Radio Corporation of America, 1962
Barium also sublimates from the heated cathode, and deposits on nearby structures. For electron tubes, where the grid is subjected to high temperatures and barium contamination would facilitate electron emission from the grid itself, higher proportion of calcium is added to the coating mix (up to 20% of calcium carbonate).
Other hexaborides can be employed as well; examples are calcium hexaboride, strontium hexaboride, barium hexaboride, yttrium hexaboride, gadolinium hexaboride, samarium hexaboride, and thorium hexaboride.
In addition to tungsten, other and alloys can be used, e.g. tantalum, molybdenum and rhenium and their alloys.
A barrier layer of other material can be placed between the base metal and the emission layer, to inhibit chemical reaction between these. The material has to be resistant to high temperatures, have high melting point and very low vapor pressure, and be electrically conductive. Materials used can be e.g. tantalum diboride, titanium diboride, zirconium diboride, niobium diboride, tantalum carbide, zirconium carbide, tantalum nitride, and zirconium nitride. Thermionic cathode: United States Patent 4137476
The cathode is usually in the form of a long narrow sheet metal cylinder at the center of the tube. The heater consists of a fine wire or ribbon, made of a high resistance metal alloy like nichrome, similar to the heating element in a toaster but finer. It runs through the center of the cathode, often being coiled on tiny insulating supports or bent into hairpin-like shapes to give enough surface area to produce the required heat. Typical heaters have a ceramic coating on the wire. When it's bent sharply at the ends of the cathode sleeve, the wire is exposed. The ends of the wire are electrically connected to two of the several pins protruding from the end of the tube. When Electric current passes through the wire it becomes red hot, and the radiated heat strikes the inside surface of the cathode, heating it. The red or orange glow seen coming from operating vacuum tubes is produced by the heater.
There is not much room in the cathode, and the cathode is often built with the heater wire touching it. The inside of the cathode is insulated by a coating of alumina (aluminum oxide). This is not a very good insulator at high temperatures, therefore tubes have a rating for maximum voltage between cathode and heater, usually only 200 to 300 V.
Heaters require a low voltage, high current source of power. Miniature receiving tubes for line-operated equipment use on the order of 0.5 to 4 watts for heater power; high power tubes such as rectifiers or output tubes use on the order of 10 to 20 watts, and broadcast transmitter tubes might need a kilowatt or more to heat the cathode.Sōgo Okamura History of electron tubes, IOS Press, 1994 , pp. 106, 109, 120, 144, 174 The voltage required is usually 5 or 6 volts AC. This is supplied by a separate 'heater winding' on the device's power supply transformer that also supplies the higher voltages required by the tubes' plates and other electrodes. One approach used in transformerless line-operated radio and television receivers such as the All American Five is to connect all the tube heaters in series across the supply line. Since all the heaters are rated at the same current, they would share voltage according to their heater ratings.
Battery-operated radio sets used direct-current power for the heaters (commonly known as filaments), and tubes intended for battery sets were designed to use as little filament power as necessary, to economize on battery replacement. The final models of tube-equipped radio receivers were built with subminiature tubes using less than 50 mA for the heaters, but these types were developed at about the same time as transistors which replaced them.
Where leakage or stray fields from the heater circuit could potentially be coupled to the cathode, direct current is sometimes used for heater power. This eliminates a source of noise in sensitive audio or instrumentation circuits.
The majority of power required to operate low power tube equipment is consumed by the heaters. Transistors have no such power requirement, which is often a great advantage.
The activated electrodes can be destroyed by contact with oxygen or other chemicals (e.g. aluminium, or ), either present as residual gases, entering the tube via leaks, or released by outgassing or migration from the construction elements. This results in diminished emissivity. This process is known as cathode poisoning. High-reliability tubes had to be developed for the early Whirlwind computer, with filaments free of traces of silicon.
Slow degradation of the emissive layer and sudden burning and interruption of the filament are two main of vacuum tubes.
| Tungsten | 2500 K() | 5 mA/W | 500 mA/cm2 |
| Thoriated tungsten | 2000 K(1726c) | 100 mA/W | 5 A/cm2 |
| Oxide coated | 1000 K | 500 mA/W | 10 A/cm2 |
| Barium aluminate | 1300 K | 400 mA/W | 4 A/cm2 |
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